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The name “natural gas” might be a puzzle. After all, how could there be such a thing as unnatural gas?

The reason we call natural gas what we do has to do with history. There was a day that people made burnable gas by heating coal. The gases that came off the coal were piped around cities where they did things like light street lamps and even power cook stoves in homes.

Coal gas, as it was known, had its down side. For one thing, it often contained carbon monoxide. And it took energy to make the gas, so it never could be truly cheap.

Happily, geologists figured out that a gas from within the Earth would burn well. Because it came from Mother Nature rather than being manufactured by people, folks called the new energy source “natural gas.” In time, natural gas replaced coal gas.

Natural gas is mostly made up of what a chemist would call methane. Methane is made of a carbon atom bound to four hydrogen atoms. Methane itself is odorless. In order to help people detect leaks of natural gas, a scent is added to it. If you’ve even once sniffed treated natural gas, you remember the distinctive odor and you’ll know if a natural gas leak is occurring in your kitchen.

In recent years a lot more natural gas has come on-line in our country due to new mining methods including hydraulic fracturing or “fracking.” Fracking allows the extraction of natural gas and sometimes petroleum from rocks including shale. But now there is an even newer development that may add a lot more natural gas to what people can burn each year.

Some 50 miles out to sea, Japanese researchers and engineers have now liberated the main ingredient of natural gas from what’s called methane hydrates that lie on the seafloor. At a depth of over 3,000 feet, the Japanese tapped a vast reservoir of natural gas bound up in frozen water under high pressure on the seafloor. The hydrates are made of methane molecules trapped in ice. Some call the hydrates “ice that burns” or “fire ice” because you can ignite it with a match.

The United States Geological Survey has put out a fact sheet on the subject of methane hydrates. Total natural gas reserves are often measured in trillion cubic feet (or TCF for short). Worldwide the USGS reports that estimates of resources of conventional natural gas are about 13,000 TCF. It’s not so easy to estimate what methane hydrates on the seafloor and in permafrost may contain, but the USGS fact sheet gives this resource the range of 100,000 to almost 300,000,000 TCF. Not all of the gas may be extractable, but clearly the total amount of methane hydrates in the world is immense.

Another way of thinking about how large are the resources that methane hydrates represent is to consider how much carbon is in the ice crystals. The USGS states that the volume of carbon in methane hydrates is estimated to be twice the carbon contained in all types of fossil fuels the world around (including in coal).

The Japanese are particularly interested in methane hydrates off their shores because they don’t have other fossil fuels to exploit. They are therefore likely to lead the rest of the world in looking for ways to mine underwater methane hydrates.

Like other energy resources, there are serious questions about environmental tradeoffs involved in using a lot of methane hydrates to meet our energy needs. Methane that escapes from mining into the air is a powerful greenhouse gas, much more significant per molecule than carbon dioxide. And methane that’s corralled by us into pipelines and burned inexorably creates carbon dioxide, although in smaller quantities per unit of heat than what happens when we burn coal. Still, the large estimates of how much methane hydrates are available may mean the period of time we rely on fossil fuels for many of our energy needs will be considerably extended – and that has implications for our climate concerns.

One thing, I think, is certain: we’ll be hearing much more about the ice that burns in the future.

MOUNT VERNON, Wash. – After more than 22 years of breeding wheat for Washington State University, Steve Lyon never expected to make a name for himself in the barley field. But this spring’s release of ‘Lyon,’ a new variety of barley, is one way his colleagues in Pullman have chosen to recognize his long-term contributions to small grains research.

05WA-316.K, now known as Lyon barley, is a two-row, spring barley developed for its higher yield potential than other varieties grown in eastern Washington. Its plump, covered kernels and resistance to fungal disease make it ideal for use as a livestock feed. Photo by Kim Binczewski. Click image to download hi-res version.

“As a graduate student in Stephen Jones’ winter wheat program, I worked with Steve Lyon on a daily basis,” said WSU barley breeder Kevin Murphy who developed, and hence claimed naming rights to, the new variety. “There is no way I would have survived the harsh rigors of grad school without Steve’s help. He was always very positive, always sure things would work out fine; and he was almost always right. This is the best way I can think of to honor and thank him.”

Lyon found out about his barley namesake from Murphy earlier this spring, when Murphy was leading a graduate student agriculture tour of classes at the WSU Mount Vernon Northwestern Washington Research and Extension Center. Lyon has been stationed there for the past three years.

“My first reaction was shock and disbelief,” Lyon said. “I am extremely honored, yet it is very humbling because I feel there are others much more deserving of such a rare distinction.”

Senior scientific assistant Steve Lyon, shown with wheat plants maturing
in a WSU Mount Vernon greenhouse, has been involved in WSU small
grains research for more than 22 years. Photo by Kim Binczewski. Click image to download hi-res version.

‘Lyon’ barley, formerly known as 05WA-316.K, is distinct in its higher yield potential than other varieties grown in eastern Washington, in its plump covered kernels and in its resistance to stem rust, a disease caused by the fungus Puccinia graminis.

The fungus attacks the above-ground parts of the plant and, a few weeks before harvest, can reduce an apparently healthy crop to a black tangle of broken stems and shriveled grains.

Although 2013 is the official year of release for the new barley variety, foundation seed will be available in spring 2014.>

“Lyon is a (livestock) feed barley that is very high yielding across many dryland environments in Washington state,” explained Murphy. “It does especially well in areas prone to stem rust and in areas that receive 16-24 inches of rainfall. Lyon is particularly well adapted to the Palouse regions of Washington.”

The same could be said of Lyon, a former wheat farmer who raised his family in Colfax, just north of Pullman, before heading west to the Skagit Valley.

“I’ve worked with Steve since 1995,” noted Stephen Jones, director of the Mount Vernon extension center and head of its plant breeding department. “He came into my program after time he spent with Ed Donaldson, a former WSU wheat breeder. Steve learned from one of the best; and when you add his farming experience, it makes it possible for him to run a field program immediately.

“He was instrumental in the development of some of the most successful wheat in the state, such as Bruehl, the most widely grown club wheat in the United States,” Jones said.

Lyon barley is the epitome of the variety-naming tradition, Jones said: “It is a great honor to have a variety named after you. Steve’s dedication to the grain growers in this state for nearly three decades is well worth this recognition.”

–Cathy McKenzie

Alaska FFA members from across the state will gather at the 37th   annual state FFA convention April 24-27 in Fairbanks . 

FFA members involved in agricultural and natural resource education will compete in  leadership and career development events, participate in a service project and attend workshops. Participants also will compete in the Canon Envirothon at Chena Lakes. The convention will be held at the Regency Hotel and Moose Lodge.

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Open Forum to Meet Candidates for Director of Marketing, News, and Educational Communications

Please plan to come meet the finalists for the position of Director, WSU CAHNRS and WSU Extension Marketing, News, and Educational Communications. Joshua Paulsen will make a brief presentation and participate in an open question-and-answer forum on May 22, 10:15 – 11:15 a.m. in Hulbert 409 (AMS 5705614 and archive. Phone bridge: 335-9445 ID: 05614). Denise Czuprynski will make a brief presentation and participate in an open forum on May 23, 2:30 – 3:30 p.m. in Hulbert 409 (AMS 5705615 and archive. Phone bridge: 335-9445 ID: 05615). The next day, May 24, Christopher Schwarzen will also make a brief presentation in an open forum format from 2:30 – 3:30 p.m. in Hulbert 409 (AMS 5705616 and archive. Phone bridge: 335-9445 ID: 05615).

Kudos

Sarah Brewer, a junior who has been doing research in Dr. Norman Lewis’ lab since high school, has been selected to receive the Barry M. Goldwater Scholarship, a highly prestigious national award for undergraduates. See On Solid Ground for the complete story.

Michael Lege, a Ph.D. student in Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, advised by Lynne Carpenter-Boggs, was awarded a Borlaug Fellowship. He leaves in July to spend a year in Uganda studying distribution channels of bean seeds and agricultural information. For his Master’s degree he traveled to Uganda for 3 months to study the social and ecological impacts of a bean research project in Kamuli. He said, “Two of the barriers I found were poor access to seed and poor access to information about farming technologies. This project hopes to look at two broadly defined types of seed distribution systems and identify differences in the movement of seeds and information, and the sustainability effects of both systems.”

4-H’er Elise Dunning was recently awarded first place in the National 4-H beekeeping essay contest. Dunning, 14, has a thirst for knowledge and a passion for writing. To address the topic of “Reducing the Usage of Bee-Killing Pesticides in my Community,” she learned about the declining population of honey bees worldwide and how toxic chemicals may be contributing to their demise. Learn more here: http://bit.ly/18IBRCx.

4-H’er Clarissa Henry is adamant about taking care of the earth. So when she heard the local farmers market would toss out remaining produce in advance of a holiday break, the Seattle 10-year-old sprang into action. She gathered the excess and made candied ginger. That idea, along with a proposal to Warren Buffett’s “Grow Your Own Business Challenge,” earned Henry and her partner, fellow fifth-grader Esai Prescod, a spot as finalists in the national competition.  Learn more here: http://bit.ly/YTAy1G.

Dr. John Fellman was an invited speaker at the EU COST 1104 (http://www.cost.eu/about_cost) “Sustainable production of high-quality cherries for the European market” executive meeting held at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania, Greece, where he presented an informational research seminar entitled “Sweet cherries in Washington: Acreage, Production Trends and Research Efforts.” He is currently a Fulbright Scholar and Visiting Professor at the Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol.

Dr. Amit Dhingra was awarded the outstanding Honors thesis advisor award by the Honors College. Ryan Christian, an Honors student supervised by Dhingra passed his Honors thesis with distinction. This distinction is in recognition of the undergraduate thesis research being of graduate level. The title of Christian’s thesis is “Identification, Cloning, and Characterization of a Novel Nucleobase-Ascorbate Transporter in Apple (Malus x domestica).”

Upcoming Events Trout Fillet Taste Panel

May 22 and 23 in Food Science & Human Nutrition Building, Room 146. The food science sensory analysis team are looking for volunteers to evaluate the sensory quality of poached trout fillet. Receive a Ferdinand’s Gift Certificate for participating. Plan to arrive within 10 minutes after the start of one of the following serving times so the fillet will be hot and fresh. Limit 6 panelists to each time block, limit 36 panelists per day. You must be 18 years of age to participate. The test will take abut 10 minutes. Available times:

• May 22: 11:50-12:00; 12:30-12:40; 1:10-1:20; 1:50-2:00
• May 22: 10:30-10:40; 11:10-11:20; 11:50-12:00; 12:30-12:40; 1:10-1:20; 1:50-2:00

Please reserve your space by sending an email to beata.vixie@email.wsu.edu. Questions? Contact Carolyn Ross at cfross@wsu.edu.

Winter canola the focus of upcoming tours

WSU/USDA-ARS Douglas Co. Winter Canola Field Tour
Tuesday, May 21, 10:00 a.m. – noon, Wade Troutman farm near Bridgeport
A winter canola variety trial with 12 entries will be one topic of discussion at this tour. There will also be presentations about the agronomic and economic benefits of oilseeds in rotation, effects of recent temperature extremes, oilseed research updates from WSU/ARS, pest identification and management, and an update from the WA Canola Commission. A box lunch is provided with RSVP.
Contact: Dale Whaley, WSU Douglas Co. Extension; (509) 745-8531 or dwaley@wsu.edu

WSU/USDA-ARS Winter Canola Field Tour
Thursday, May 23, 5:00-7:00 p.m., Beau Blachly farm south of Pomeroy
This research site is located at 4,000’ elevation and provides an opportunity to see winter canola variety development and varietal differences (11 varieties) in a cooler environment. Discussion topics include crop and chemical rotation, the effects of recent temperature extremes on crop development, particularly during flowering, economics of oilseeds in rotation, and more. Dinner will be provided with RSVP.
Contact: Karen Sowers, WSU Crop & Soil Sciences; 808-283-7013,or ksowers@wsu.edu

AgVentures NW Winter Canola Variety Trial Tour
Wednesday, May 29, 9:00-11:00 a.m., Paul & Lorri Williams’ farm northwest of Reardan.
This tour will begin with learning about canola production from Paul and Lorri’s perspective, including discussion of seeding dates and harvesting methods. Other agenda items include disease and pest management strategies by John Merkel of AgLink, an oilseed research and outreach update from WSU/USDA-ARS, and walking tours of both the large scale winter canola variety plots and the University of Idaho winter canola variety trials.
Contact: Paul Porter, AgVentures NW; 509-348-0060, paul@agventuresnw.com

WSU Tour of Fresh Wheat Stubble Management for Irrigated Winter Canola
Thursday May 30, 7:00-8:30 p.m., Jeff Schibel farm near Odessa
This twilight tour will feature an update about a winter canola research trial WSU established last fall to look at four winter wheat stubble management treatments, including direct-seeding winter canola into fresh winter wheat stubble. Jeff will share his experiences with 15 years of irrigated winter canola production, and Roy Andrews from Wilbur-Ellis will discuss winter canola fertilizer, herbicide and disease management strategies. The evening will conclude with a tour of the University of Idaho winter canola variety trials at the same location.
Contact: Karen Sowers, WSU Crop & Soil Sciences 808-283-7013, or ksowers@wsu.edu

Oregon State University Pendleton Agricultural Research Center Field Day
June 11, 7:45 a.m. – 2:30 p.m., Pendleton, OR
Registration begins at 7:45, and tours begin at 8:35 a.m. Presentations during the tours will be by university and ARS scientists, including one stop at an early-planted, biennial winter canola study investigating nitrogen fertilizer application timing, and the potential for forage production. Other stops feature quinoa, barely, winter field peas, winter wheat, wheat diseases, and more. A hosted lunch is provided, and tours conclude at 2:30 with an ice cream social.
Contact: 541-278-4186 or complete program is posted at www.cbarc.aes.oregonstate.edu

Oregon State University Sherman Co. Agricultural Research Center Field Day
Wednesday, June 12, 7:30 a.m. – 1:00 p.m., Moro, OR
Biennial canola production (early-seeded canola) will be one of several stops on the bus tour at the field day. Wheat diseases and management, winter wheat breeding and variety trials, and transitioning CRP ground to wheat production will also be discussed at other stops on the tour. A hosted lunch at the Sherman Co. fairgrounds will be provided following the tours.
Contact: 541-278-4186 or see complete details at www.cbarc.aes.oregonstate.edu.

Croplan Genetics/Winfield Solutions cereal grain and canola Answer Plot® tour
June 27, 9:00 a.m. – 1:00 p.m., Carothers Rd. west of Pullman
Winfield Solutions established this long-term cropping systems trial in 2011-12, and it is the first Answer Plot® location in the Pacific Northwest, near Pullman. The test plots serve as an outdoor classroom to provide those attending with production results and help make planning decisions for their next crop. Please RSVP for the tour and lunch.
Contact: Beau Blachly, (509) 843-7334 or bpblachly@landolakes.com

University of Idaho Parker Farm Field Day
Tuesday, July 9, 8:00 a.m., Parker Farm, Moscow, Idaho.
The PSES Department at University of Idaho is hosting a field day that will include tours of canola, mustard and rapeseed research trials as well as other agricultural research. The field day concludes with a hosted lunch at noon.

Hort Club Plant Sale

May 17, 10 a.m.-2 p.m.: Tomato, pepper and flowering plants will be sold by the Horticulture Club in the greenhouses near Ferdinand’s Ice Cream Shoppe at Washington State University.

WSU Organic Farm on the Mall

Fresh-picked organic produce from WSU’s Organic Farm will be offered for sale at a farm stand on WSU’s Terrell Mall from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. on Wednesdays, beginning May 8th. Due to many requests for the farm’s produce, the farm stand will be open starting in May and running through early October. The first weeks will include fresh greens from the hoophouses and organic vegetable and flower starts for sale. The farm accepts cash and checks only.

Seminars

May 20, 8:30 a.m., Johnson Hall 343: Dr. Jianjun Hao, Department of Plant Pathology, Michigan State University. “Microbial Communities: The Causes of and Solutions to Soilborne Diseases.”

May 22, 2013, 8:30 a.m., Johnson Hall 343: Dr. Melanie Lewis Ivey, Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center. “Developing Advanced Research Tools Strengthens Plant Disease Management.”

Recent News Releases

• May 16 - WSU releases new barley variety honoring longtime plant breeder Steve Lyon
• May 15 – Hop researchers learn advanced brewing techniques
• May 14 – Flower power fights orchard pests
• May 6 – Securing future farms and forests
• May 6 – April brings frost, sleepless nights for growers

In eNews

The May 8 issue of On Solid Ground citrus greening disease, “superfruit,” and the Goldwater Award winner. Read all about it at http://bit.ly/10VH9Tq.

Archives

CAHNRS News is archived at http://cahnrsnews.wsu.edu/category/cnews/.

Have you been searching for fun, educational activities for your children over the summer? Check out Cooperative Extension’s Junior Master Gardener (JMG) program. Beginning in June, your child will experience hands-on gardening activities while learning about plants, water, soil, veggies and more! They will learn to garden for healthy foods with an end product they can eat. In addition, your child will learn leadership skills, service, safety with tools and much more.

All children, ages 6-14 are invited to attend the program. The 8-week class fee is $30. Classes are held from 8-11 a.m. If you live in the north part of the valley, there are Saturday JMG classes at the Master Gardener Orchard (Horse Road/Decatur) beginning June 7.

If you live in the south part of the valley, the Thursday JMG classes are held at the Lifelong Learning Center’s Outdoor Education Center (I-215 and Windmill Lane) beginning June 13.

At the end of this 8-week summer program, your child will receive a certificate and an invitation to attend JMG Part II offered in the fall.

For more information and to register, please email Karyn Johnson or call 702-257-5523. Students must register to participate. For more information on the nation-wide JMG program, visit JMG Kids.

Clark County Cooperative Extension Master Gardener Helen Brown will be presenting two separate gardening classes in June. On June 1, join Brown for an informational class on “Vine Crops Thrive in Hot Weather” at Whole Foods at Town Square (6689 Las Vegas Blvd. So. LV 89119). To RSVP for the class, email Whole Foods.The class begins at noon.

On June 15, Brown will conduct a class on “Container Herbs to Grow from Seed” at the Master Gardener Orchard located at 4600 Horse Road, NLV. This class is open to the public and begins at 8 a.m. There is a $5 donation for the class. The Orchard is a research and demonstration facility designed to test the suitability of fruit and vegetable varieties and transfer the knowledge on how to grow them in our harsh Mojave Desert climate.

For more information, please email or call the Master Gardener Help Desk at 702-257-5555.

Clark County Cooperative Extension Master Gardener Denise McConnell will be presenting two, separate free gardening classes in June. The first, “Landscape Design with the End in Mind: Part I,” will be offered on June 13 at the Gibson Library (100 W. Lake Mead Pkwy, Henderson). Part II will be offered on June 27, both beginning at 5:45 p.m.

In the first landscape design class, McConnell will introduce the basics of landscape design. You then have 2 weeks to work on a design. During the second class, she will review and discuss the design with each participant. You must participate in Part I to attend Part II. Class size is limited to 20 households. Register on line or call 702-564-9261.

On June 15, join McConnell at the Green Valley Library (2797 Green Valley Pkwy, Henderson) for an informational class on “Birds, Butterflies and Bees” at 3:30 p.m. Discover how birds, butterflies, and bees contribute to the world’s food supply. You’ll learn simple tips for how to attract these wondrous creatures to your yard and how not to. Find out what ones live here all year and how to recognize them. Registration is required for this class. Register on line or call 702-207-4261.

For general gardening questions contact the Master Gardener Help Line at 702-257-5555.

Clark County Cooperative Extension is offering a series of parent-child classes designed to educate you and your child (3-5 years old) through fun, creative lessons while preparing your child for kindergarten. Children will learn the importance of cooperation, creativity, reading skills, fun ways to be active and eating healthy while making new friends.

The 3-program series will be held at Cambridge Community Center located at 3900 Cambridge Street, LV 89119 throughout the summer.

The program series includes: Family Storyteller - A six week program aimed at encouraging and training parents to play a vital role in the early literacy development of their children. Each class parents and their children participate in reading and language activities together.

All 4 Kids — An 11 week program that encourages preschool children to be Healthy, Happy, Active and Fit. Parents and children work together in activities that promote healthful habits regarding physical activity, snacks, feeding cues and acceptance of self and others.

Little Books and Little Cooks — A seven week program designed to promote healthy eating, family literacy, positive parent-child interaction and the child’s school readiness skills. During each class, children and parents come together to learn about nutrition, read children’s books and then cook and eat together.

For more information about the series, dates and times, or to register please email or call 702-257-5525.

PROSSER, Wash.—In 1980, Sierra Nevada Brewing Co. founder Ken Grossman effectively put the Cascade hop of Yakima, Wash., on the map. The hop was central to the pale ale that made Grossman’s company a household name. More than three decades later, Washington State University researchers studying optimal brewing qualities with that same hop recently interned with Sierra Nevada master brewers to hone their brewing skills and learn advanced brewing methods that are being pioneered by American craft brewers.

Scientists at WSU’s Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center (IAREC) in Prosser are investigating the ways agronomic practices, including irrigation, plant nutrition, and pest and disease management, affect hop yields and, just as important, the brewing quality of hops, according to Douglas Walsh, professor and integrated pest management coordinator.

“For craft brewers, the quality element is extremely important, since their customers truly appreciate the vital flavors that hops contribute to their brews,” Walsh said. “Craft brewers use hops in new and innovative ways.

“Fortunately for Washington state hop growers,” he added, “hops are used in much greater quantities per barrel in many craft brews than in the lager-type brews from traditional large-scale brewers.

“We will be the research bridge between the brewer and Washington state hop growers in developing the production practices that help the growers deliver hops with the optimal properties desired by brewers,” he said.

Strong demand for Washington hops

WSU researcher Ruth Henderson pours hops into a tank at the Sierra Nevada Brewing Co. in Chico, Calif., as Abe Kabakoff, Sierra Nevada head pilot brewer, looks on. Photo courtesy of Ruth Henderson. Click image for a high-resolution version.

Business is, excuse the pun, hopping for Washington state hop growers. On roughly 23,000 acres, the state produces more than 90 percent of U.S. hops and about 25 percent of world production, Walsh said. Washington ranks second only to Germany in global hop production.

“Over 50 percent of the hops produced in Washington are exported and, as is generally known, hops are the key flavoring spice in the 51 billion gallons of beer consumed annually worldwide,” he added.

Sierra Nevada is a flagship brewer of the American Craft Brewers Association, a major stakeholder group of WSU’s hop research program, Walsh said. But historical and geographical ties existed between the brewing company and central Washington long before this partnership began.

According to the Sierra Nevada website, Grossman drove from the future home of Sierra Nevada in Chico, Calif., to Yakima in the late 1970s and persuaded hop brokers to sell him 100 pounds of “brewers cuts,” or samples sent to breweries to try before purchasing 200-pound bales.

“On those early trips to Yakima for hops, Ken fell in love with the flavors and aromas of the Cascade hop,” the website explained. “The pure and intense citrus-pine flavors were like nothing else. That hop became one of the signatures of Sierra Nevada, and in turn, the hop that helped to define the West Coast style of brewing.”

“Cascade as a hop variety has become one of the preferred hop varieties of the American Craft Brewers Association,” Walsh added.

Coming soon: Cougar Crimson Ale

(From left to right) Sierra Nevada’s director of research and development Gil Sanchez; WSU researchers Dan Groenendale and Ruth Henderson; Sierra Nevada’s senior research analyst Chris Baugh; and Tom Nielsen, Sierra Nevada’s technical lead of flavor and raw materials. Photo courtesy of Ruth Henderson. Click image for a high-resolution version.

In March, Ruth Henderson, postdoctoral researcher, and Dan Groenendale, field research director of the IAREC’s environmental and agricultural entomology laboratory, spent three days in Chico learning about Sierra Nevada’s brewing techniques from the company’s master brewers. With the knowledge they acquired, Henderson and Groenendale will brew beers for sensory analysis trials by food scientist Carolyn Ross in Pullman and by American Craft Brewers Association members.

In particular, Henderson said, she and Groenendale learned how to prevent oxidation in beer, which occurs when oxygen gets into beer after fermentation. This gives the beer a harsh, bitter aftertaste.

Based on the Sierra Nevada brewers’ recommendations, the WSU research team has moved to a closed system, fermenting beer in sealed kegs and moving it from one container to another using pressurized carbon dioxide so that oxygen never touches it.

“From now on, the only bitterness in our beer will come from the hops,” Henderson said.

“The folks at Sierra Nevada are meticulous when it comes to the quality of their beer,” she said. “They make sure it comes out excellent every time. What we learned from them is how to treat our brews like they do theirs, but on our small scale and with the equipment we have on hand.”

Henderson and Groenendale also received advice on choosing combinations of grains and hops to make a tasty, balanced beer when creating a new recipe. Henderson is putting these ideas to the test now in her recipe for the new Cougar Crimson Ale.

“It will be an IPA (India pale ale)-style beer with a natural red coloration from the grains I am using to make it. No food coloring needed,” she said. “I will be hopping it with whole, dried hop cones grown and harvested right here at the Prosser research station. Here’s hoping my tasters enjoy it!”

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PROSSER, Wash. – In 1980, Sierra Nevada Brewing Co. founder Ken Grossman effectively put the Cascade hop of Yakima, Wash., on the map. The hop was central to the pale ale that made Grossman’s company a household name. More than three decades later, Washington State University researchers studying optimal brewing qualities with that same hop recently interned with Sierra Nevada master brewers to hone their brewing skills and learn advanced brewing methods that are being pioneered by American craft brewers.

Optimal quality, quantity

WSU researcher Ruth Henderson pours hops into a tank at the Sierra Nevada Brewing Company in Chico, Calif., as Abe Kabakoff, Sierra Nevada head pilot brewer, looks on.

Scientists at WSU’s Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center (IAREC) in Prosser are investigating the ways agronomic practices, including irrigation, plant nutrition and pest and disease management, affect hop yields and, just as important, the brewing quality of hops, according to Douglas Walsh, professor and integrated pest management coordinator.

“For craft brewers, the quality element is extremely important, since their customers truly appreciate the vital flavors that hops contribute to their brews,” Walsh said. “Craft brewers use hops in new and innovative ways.

“Fortunately for Washington state hop growers,” he added, “hops are used in much greater quantities per barrel in many craft brews than in the lager-type brews from traditional large-scale brewers.

“We will be the research bridge between the brewer and Washington state hop growers in developing the production practices that help the growers deliver hops with the optimal properties desired by brewers,” he said.

Strong demand for Washington hops

Business is, excuse the pun, hopping for Washington state hop growers. On roughly 23,000 acres, the state produces more than 90 percent of U.S. hops and about 25 percent of world supply, Walsh said. Washington ranks second only to Germany in global hop production.

“Over 50 percent of the hops produced in Washington are exported and, as is generally known, hops are the key flavoring spice in the 51 billion gallons of beer consumed annually worldwide,” he said.

Sierra Nevada is a flagship brewer of the American Craft Brewers Association, a major stakeholder group of WSU’s hop research program, Walsh said. But historical and geographical ties existed between the brewing company and central Washington long before this partnership began.

According to the Sierra Nevada website, Grossman drove from the future home of Sierra Nevada in Chico, Calif., to Yakima in the late 1970s and persuaded hop brokers to sell him 100 pounds of “brewers cuts,” or samples sent to breweries to try before they purchase 200-pound bales.

“On those early trips to Yakima for hops, Ken fell in love with the flavors and aromas of the Cascade hop,” the website explained. “The pure and intense citrus-pine flavors were like nothing else. That hop became one of the signatures of Sierra Nevada and, in turn, the hop that helped to define the West Coast style of brewing.”

“Cascade as a hop variety has become one of the preferred hop varieties of the American Craft Brewers Association,” Walsh said.

Coming soon: Cougar Crimson Ale

In March, Ruth Henderson, postdoctoral researcher, and Dan Groenendale, field research director of the IAREC’s environmental and agricultural entomology laboratory, spent three days in Chico learning about Sierra Nevada’s brewing techniques from the company’s master brewers. With the knowledge they acquired, Henderson and Groenendale will brew beers for sensory analysis trials by food scientist Carolyn Ross in Pullman and by American Craft Brewers Association members.

In particular, Henderson said, she and Groenendale learned how to prevent oxidation in beer, which occurs when oxygen gets into beer after fermentation. This gives the beer a harsh, bitter aftertaste.

Based on the Sierra Nevada brewers’ recommendations, the WSU research team has moved to a closed system, fermenting beer in sealed kegs and moving it from one container to another using pressurized carbon dioxide so that oxygen never touches it.

“From now on, the only bitterness in our beer will come from the hops,” Henderson said.

“The folks at Sierra Nevada are meticulous when it comes to the quality of their beer,” she said. “They make sure it comes out excellent every time. What we learned from them is how to treat our brews like they do theirs, but on our small scale and with the equipment we have on hand.”

Henderson and Groenendale also received advice on choosing combinations of grains and hops to make a tasty, balanced beer when creating a new recipe. Henderson is putting these ideas to the test now in her recipe for the new Cougar Crimson Ale.

“It will be an IPA (India pale ale)-style beer with a natural red coloration from the grains I am using to make it. No food coloring needed,” she said. “I will be hopping it with whole, dried hop cones grown and harvested right here at the Prosser research station. Here’s hoping my tasters enjoy it.”

–Nella Letizia

WENATCHEE, Wash. – Washington State University researchers have found they can control one of fruit growers’ more severe pests, aphids, with a remarkably benign tool: flowers. The discovery is a boon for organic as well as conventional tree fruit growers.

Graduate student Lessando Gontijo nets syrphids to measure their attraction to sweet alyssum.
(Photos by Betsy Beers, WSU)

The researchers recently published their study in the journal Biological Control. They found that plantings of sweet alyssum attracted a host of spiders and predator bugs that in turn preyed on woolly apple aphids, a pest that growers often control with chemical sprays.

“The results were striking,” said Lessando Gontijo, who led the research project while a doctoral student in the WSU Department of Entomology. “After one week, aphid densities were significantly lower on trees adjacent to flowers than on control plots, and these differences were maintained for several weeks.”

To select an appropriate flower for the study, the researchers screened six candidates, including marigolds and zinnias. They chose sweet alyssum because it attracted the greatest number of hoverflies, or syrphids, which have larvae that often feed on aphids. Hoverflies and other insects are attracted to flowers because they can find food in the form of pollen and nectar.

Researchers compared plots of apple trees with sweet alyssum to plots without flowers. While the sweet alyssum attracted hoverflies, as desired, Gontijo and colleagues found few hoverfly larvae, showing that the hoverflies had only a marginal effect on the aphid population.

A syrphid hovers over alyssum.

The mystery of the disappearing aphids seemed solved when the researchers found a diverse community of spiders and predatory insects in the plots with sweet alyssum. But was it really the flowers that attracted aphid predators? The scientists sprayed protein markers on the sweet alyssum and later captured insects and spiders at a distance from the flower plots. Many of the insects and spiders tested positive for the proteins, proving that they had visited the flowers.

“The woolly apple aphid is surprisingly damaging for an aphid, attacking tree shoots and roots,” said Betsy Beers, an entomologist based at WSU’s Tree Fruit Research and Extension Center in Wenatchee and Gontijo’s mentor and co-author on the paper. “These aphids also secrete a sticky liquid called honeydew, which can coat the apples, causing much annoyance during harvest.”

The aphids were previously kept at bay when orchardists sprayed pesticides to control codling moths. Since the phase-out of organophosphate insecticides, though, the woolly apple aphid has been making a comeback in central Washington and elsewhere.

The researchers state that the use of sweet alyssum for biological control can be easily integrated with standard orchard-management practices and should be especially appealing to organic growers, who have fewer insecticide options.

The article, “Flowers promote aphid suppression in apple orchards,” was published in the July 2013 edition of Biological Control and is available online at http://bit.ly/17Y8zOM. WSU entomologist William Snyder was a co-author.

–Bob Hoffmann

Modern veterinary science is a technically advanced field. Some animals receive not just x-rays, but sophisticated scans like MRIs. If you visit a large veterinary hospital you will find cats getting chemotherapy and dogs on the receiving end of complicated surgeries.

Naturally, a lot of the training vet students receive is focused on the “hard science” parts of what they will do as practicing veterinarians. But there’s also a softer side to veterinary medicine, one that’s increasingly being recognized where vet students are trained. Recently I learned about it from Dr. Kathy Ruby, a licensed counselor who works for the College of Veterinary Medicine at Washington State University.

“I teach a class for vet students called ‘Pet Loss and Human Bereavement’” Ruby said. “Veterinary science training is great on the medical side. It’s my job to concentrate on the other end of the leash.”

In the old days, vets mostly dealt with livestock like cows and pigs. These so-called large animals didn’t inspire close bonds with their human owners. But now many of us deeply care about the smaller animals that live in our houses. Our cats don’t just live in the barn catching mice, but spend their days in our homes. Dogs are not banished to the backyard, but sleep at the foot of our beds or even between the sheets.

“In some ways we now have what you could call inter-species families,” Ruby said. “That’s wonderful, but it also makes for great challenges when our pets reach the end of their lives.”

It’s a simple fact that we generally outlive the animals in our homes. That means we are often quite involved in an animal’s decline. And at the end we may face decisions including euthanasia.

“In ‘people medicine’ we still see death as a failure,” Ruby said. “With animals we often choose a good death at a particular time.”

In 1999 Ruby founded a free hot-line that gives people a place to call when they are grieving for their animals. The hot-line can be reached toll free at (866) 266–8635. About 25 vet students each semester staff the hot-line, taking calls from across the country and sometimes even around the world. Each student works the telephone bank for four sessions.

“The first time they are on the hot-line, the students are scared,” Ruby said. “But they work past that once they have some experience talking with callers.”

The hot-line, which is funded by a grant from Purina, is available Monday-Thursday from 7 pm to 9 pm Pacific Time and on Saturdays from 1 pm to 3 pm Pacific Time. Messages can be left at other times.

“We also receive emails at plhl@vetmed.wsu.edu,” Ruby said. “We sometimes get them sent to us at 1 am from people wondering if their grief is normal or if they are going crazy.”

The technical side of veterinary medicine is enormously complex. But the human side also matters, and it’s impressive the way some veterinary colleges are preparing their students.

Certified-organic annuals, perennials, vegetables and herbs for sale

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension will host its Annual Master Gardener Plant Faire and sale from 7 a.m. to 2 p.m., May 18 at the Master Gardener Greenhouse #13, 920 Valley Road in Reno.

This year Washoe County Master Gardeners have teamed up with Hungry Mother Organics of Minden to learn the new growing methods and techniques of organic production. The collaboration has provided the Master Gardeners with an opportunity to learn from experts in the nursery business.

Thousands of certified organically grown plants will be available for sale. In addition to a few perennials and shrubs, the Plant Faire will feature more than 30 tomato varieties, 40 other vegetable varieties, 30 herb varieties and 20 annual flower varieties.

Four-inch plants will be for sale for $2.50, special squares will be priced at $6, and grafted and premium plants will be sold for $10. A portion of all sales will go to the Master Gardener Program to help the program continue to provide plant expertise to the community. Cash, checks and credit cards will be accepted.

The annual event, where more than 8,000 plants were sold last year, is part of an effort to raise funds for the Master Gardener Program, said Wendy Hanson Mazet, coordinator of the program.

"The program is self-supported, so any of the funds from this sale will go toward maintaining educational materials for the volunteers to help the public with plant problems," she said. "It will also allow us to purchase any equipment needed for diagnosing plant problems and other materials needed to continue the program."

To receive more information, reminders or an advanced copy of the plant list, email Mazet at hansonw@unce.unr.edu.You can also "Ask a Master Gardener" your gardening and plant-care questions by emailing mastergardeners@unce.unr.edu.

Focuses on food-safety practices in fruit and vegetable production; prepares producers for certification

The University of Nevada Cooperative Extension and the Nevada Department of Agriculture will be hosting the Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) Training for food safety June 5-7 at the Nevada Department of Agriculture in Sparks. The free, three-day program, sponsored by the USDA Food and Nutrition Service Farm-to-School Grant Program, will focus on on-farm food-safety practices related to fruit and vegetable production. Participants will learn principles of good agricultural and handling practices.

Seth Urbanowitz, White Pine County Extension educator, said this training differs from other trainings offered for producers elsewhere.

"It is a comprehensive food-safety training that prepares fruit and vegetable growers to identify on-farm food-safety hazards, implement a food-safety plan and engage consumers, buyers and distributors in a discussion about safe food," Urbanowitz said. "Food safety is important in providing the consumer high-quality, safe food, mitigating risk and gaining market access."

According to Urbanowitz, it is important for producers to have a food-safety plan for their farms so that they can think more comprehensively about food safety and ultimately prepare for a "GAP/GHP," or Good Agricultural Practices/Good Handling Practices, audit. After attending the training, participants can go through the audit process to be certified one year under the GHP/GAP certification, as well as apply for cost-share funding for the cost of the audit.

With more and more schools and restaurants trying to buy locally produced fruits and vegetables, producers need some type of safety certification to meet the terms of their contracts. Direct-market farmers have an opportunity to be certified and even have the cost of certification reduced through the cost-share program.

Ashley Jeppson, Nevada Department of Agriculture Farm-to-School grant coordinator, encourages producers to take advantage of the certification program.

"The demand for GAPs is on the rise, and food safety begins on the farm," Jeppson said. "The certification will help producers now and in the future adapt to changes in food safety and better prepare them to reduce food-safety risks."

Reimbursements under the cost-share program will cover 75 percent of all costs associated with a successful USDA GHP/GAP audit, up to a maximum of $750. To qualify for disbursement, applicants must have successfully completed an approved USDA audit on or between June 1, 2013 and July 30, 2015.

The good agricultural practices training being offered free June 5-7 by Cooperative Extension and the Department of Agriculture, with USDA sponsorship, can cost more than $1,000 when offered elsewhere, Urbanowitz said. Applications to sign up for the training are accepted and approved by the Nevada Department of Agriculture on a first-come, first-served basis. The training will run 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. each day and will be held at the Department of Agriculture in Sparks, 405 S. 21st St.

For more information or to register, contact the White Pine County Cooperative Extension office at 775-293-6599 or email Urbanowitz at urbanowitzs@unce.unr.edu.

U.S. Orange Growers Feeling Squeezed

Citrus greening prevents fruits from ripening and threatens the industry. Photo courtesy the U.S.D.A.

If left unaddressed, the entire U.S. citrus industry could be wiped out. In addition, as Florida Senator Bill Nelson said, “We’ll end up paying $5 for an orange-–and it’ll be one imported from someplace else.”A pandemic is destroying orange groves in Florida. The disease, called citrus greening, is also spreading to citrus groves in Texas and California, threatening an industry valued at more than $3 billion per year.

Citrus greening disease is spread by bacteria that block trees’ nutrient and water chann

els and prevent fruit from ripening. “It’s like choking the tree from the inside out,” said David Gang, a WSU molecular biologist and biochemist who is collaborating with a large, interdisciplinary team to combat the disease.

The Culprit

The bacteria are hosted and spread by an insect related to aphids and whiteflies called the Asian citrus psyllid (pronounced sill-id). The disease is thought to have spread from China in the early 2000s. Citrus greening has already destroyed the citrus industry in Jamaica.

The invasive psyllids pierce the citrus trees with a needle-like mouthpiece, similar to the way a malaria-transmitting mosquito infects its victims. As it feeds on the tree’s water and nutrients, the psyllid injects the disease-causing bacteria, which then spreads through the rest of the plant.

To combat this aggressive disease, the U.S. Department of Agriculture has funded a multifaceted, multi-institutional, multi-state initiative involving more than 40 researchers. These scientists are looking at the disease’s ecological consequences, the biology of citrus trees, the Asian citrus psyllid, and the mechanism(s) by which the insect transmits the greening disease bacteria.

Pesticides have been of some use in controlling the psyllids, but researchers are concerned the insects will develop resistance. And biocontrols-–siccing good bugs to prey on the bad ones-–have proven ineffective because the psyllids simply outbreed their predators.

That’s where David Gang enters the scene.

Altering the Insect

“Getting good quality data from this kind of approach is actually quite challenging,” Gang said. “But once you learn how to do it, the procedure is relatively routine; because of that, we were invited to be part of this project.”Gang’s lab in the WSU Institute of Biological Chemistry specializes in using new technologies like genomics and proteomics to study plant defense mechanisms, particularly the chemical compounds that help plants survive and combat pathogens and pests. In the USDA-funded project, Gang and his colleagues isolate and sequence the genes being expressed in the psyllids as they feed on citrus plants.

Once Gang and his colleagues obtain gene expression data, they make it available in a database for their collaborators to use. “We hope this data can be used to develop a “nupsyllid” (as in “new-psyllid”) that will be unable to transmit or harbor the citrus greening bacteria,” Gang said.

The researchers are also turning to genetic engineering as a last resort weapon against citrus greening: “We can shut off genes that are involved in transmission of the bacterium,” said Gang. Since citrus plants have no inherent defense and consumers reject genetically engineered food, the research team is focused on modifying the disease-transmitting pest. Gang said that nupsyllids are expected to outcompete and eventually replace the disease-spreading psyllids because citrus greening disease infects and weakens its insect host.

Avoiding Devastating Damage

Ensuring the economic and horticultural health and sustainability of the U.S. citrus industry is the goal of the USDA-funded five-year project. “The investment the USDA is putting into this project is really very small compared to the economic damage already caused by this disease and is trivial compared to the potential damage that could be caused down the road,” Gang said. “It’s one of those things where we don’t really have a choice. If we don’t do something, all of the citrus trees in the United States will likely be dead within 10-20 years.”

That’s why he and his colleagues are seeking a workable genetic solution to the citrus greening challenge, Gang said: “We’re kind of proud of the fact that it’s difficult to do and we’re good at it.”

Learn more about the work in David Gang’s lab at http://lcme.wsu.edu/people.php.

-Chelsea Pickett

Bringing Home Scotland Superfruit Study Findings

Raspberries are one of the “superfruits” being studied this summer by WSU Mount Vernon weed scientist Tim Miller and his colleagues in Scotland. Photo by Tim Miller, WSU.

When WSU weed scientist Tim Miller first teamed up with fruit researchers in the United Kingdom last summer, he was hoping to learn how weeds affect the quality and nutritional value of raspberries. This May 14-23, he is traveling back to the James Hutton Institute in Invergowrie, Scotland, for a second year of berry trials to refine his findings leading toward the production of a higher-quality “superfruit” in the Pacific Northwest

Miller developed the series of trial projects in order to find out whether weeds–or the herbicides used to control them–produce berries with less of the vitamin C and other antioxidants and nutrients which make the fruit so healthful and appealing to consumers. His research complements that of UK researchers who have perfected the method for measuring the amounts of various compounds in raspberry and black currant, the two so-called superfruits which contain large amounts of antioxidants.When WSU weed scientist Tim Miller first teamed up with fruit researchers in the United Kingdom last summer, he was hoping to learn how weeds affect the quality and nutritional value of raspberries. This May 14-23, he is traveling back to the James Hutton Institute in Invergowrie, Scotland, for a second year of berry trials to refine his findings leading toward the production of a higher-quality “superfruit” in the Pacific Northwest.

Antioxidants are vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients that protect and repair cells from damage caused by free radicals that can impair the body’s immune system. Superfuits are believed to help fight off that damage by boosting the immune system, enabling the body to better ward off colds, flu, and other infections.

Collaborative Compatibility

“Since we both grow berries, it was a natural thing for a Pacific Northwest weed scientist and the small fruit breeders in the United Kingdom to team up and see what some of the factors are that affect berry quality,” said Miller. His initial Scottish berry trial results linked the presence of some hard-to-control weeds like broadleaf dock, fireweed, and quackgrass to such negative impacts on berries as lower amounts of sugar and vitamin C, as well as reduced color and sweetness. Miller hopes this year’s trials will provide even more useful information for berry growers and consumers across the globe. For raspberries, one common factor may be how weeds are managed. “Producers in the Pacific Northwest, as in Scotland, use herbicides to manage cane growth and control weeds,” Miller said. Their research may determine–for the first time–whether weed control also influences berry quality, sugar content, color, and antioxidant levels.

“A better understanding of the potential effects of management decisions will give growers one more tool to improve not only the yield of their fruit, but also how good that fruit is for consumers,” Miller said. “Whenever you test living plants in the real world, you can expect some variation in the results from year to year. If berry quality factors respond the same way two years in a row, it’s a good indication that you are looking at a true response rather than simply a short-term reaction to temperature or some other environmental factor.”

Read more about Tim Miller’s work with berries at http://bit.ly/130LZnE.

-Brian Clark and Cathy McKenzie

Developing a Plan to Feed Future Generations

Olympia native and WSU undergraduate Sarah Brewer describes herself as a “plant-aholic” who first got her hands dirty in a backyard greenhouse where she and her stepfather grew 16 varieties of tomatoes.

Sarah Brewer plans on researching cotton seed as a consumable.

Brewer’s high school teacher helped ignite her interest in biology and inspired a curiosity for how plants work at a basic level. He also introduced her to Norman Lewis, WSU Regents Professor, professor of molecular plant sciences and chemistry, and director of the Institute of Biological Chemistry (IBC).

Funded by a National Science Foundation grant, Brewer was selected to be a high school intern in Lewis’ IBC lab the summer between her junior and senior years. She returned to the lab her first day on the WSU campus as a freshman and has been there ever since.

“Plants are important to food, medicine, and fibers, so there are many directions my work could go,” Brewer said. “It’s difficult to know how to make oneself most useful as a plant scientist. I think about societies facing food shortages and other challenges in coming years, plus how climate change is impacting the entire world. I think I’d like to create new cultivars of plants for the future that would be drought-resistant.”

Brewer is also looking into research that could lead to a new protein-rich human and animal consumable: cotton seed. While the seeds are 22% protein, some of the molecules in them are toxic to animals with a single-compartment stomach, such as humans or swine.

Brewer’s experimental strategy is to reveal how cotton plants produce gossypol, which is the problematic toxic compound that also has desirable qualities, including anticancer and plant pathogen defense mechanisms. She hopes to establish the biochemical and molecular reasons for these effects so the positive can be optimized and the negative eliminated. Conducted over the coming year, she will also use the project for her Honors College thesis.

Broad Focus

Now a junior, Brewer has two majors: one in agricultural biotechnology and another in biochemistry in the College of Veterinary Medicine. Ag biotech emphasizes the development and application of new technology to ensure a safe and abundant food and fiber supply. It aligns perfectly with Brewer’s career goals to earn a Ph.D. in plant biology, become a university professor who inspires undergraduates to pursue science careers, and conduct interdisciplinary research in molecular plant sciences.

Brewer recently received national awards from the Barry M. Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Program to support her quest to make the world a better place. She hopes to qualify next for a Marshall scholarship that would allow her to study in the United Kingdom. Learn more about the Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education program at http://bit.ly/123U5vf.

-Beverly Makhani

One of the most breath-taking geologic events is a major earthquake. In just a few moments, shaking of the Earth can result in billions of dollars of damage and thousands of lives lost.

Many earthquakes are related to the movement of tectonic plates, the large chunks of the Earth’s outer surface that move with respect to each other. Plates are “born” in places like Iceland, where magma comes up from below and creates oceanic plate material. Plates “die” where one plate dives beneath another and ultimately is pulled and pushed down so deeply into the Earth it melts away to nothing.

Plates vary a bit in how fast they move, but about an inch or two a year is not uncommon. That’s roughly the speed that your fingernails grow. That may not sound like much, but when you consider it’s the whole surface of the planet that’s moving, you get an appreciation for the great forces that are involved in tectonic movement.

One example of where the rubber meets the road regarding tectonic movement is in the Pacific Northwest. The Cascadia subduction zone is the area where what’s called the Juan de Fuca plate is diving under the North American plate. The movement generates major earthquakes from time to time. The most recent mega-quake occurred in 1700. Geologists think the region is about due for another similar event.

Does that mean the Pacific Northwest faces grave seismic danger like California? The situations in the two regions are a bit different, because California’s San Andreas fault creates movement at and near the surface – where us people live. But there’s no doubt Cascadia poses a major hazard, and that’s true in part because the Pacific Northwest is not as well prepared for earthquakes as California is.

Recently I was reading in Science News about new information regarding earthquakes and plate movement. In the Cascadia region something called “slow slip” happens about every 15 months. Slow slip occurs when the rocks on either side of a major fault move about the same amount as in a major earthquake, but they do so over weeks to months rather than almost instantaneously as in an earthquake. Slow slip can generate as much movement as an earthquake that measures 7 or more on the Richter scale.

The evidence for slow slip was documented first for Cascadia in the bedrock of Vancouver Island, just over the international border in British Columbia.

“It’s like an earthquake, only slower,” said geophysicist Kelin Wang of the Geological Survey of Canada to Science News.

Now that geologists and geophysicists know what they are looking for, slow slip events have been identified the world around. In Japan, some slow slip events have been documented that occur about each three to five years and last a few months while others occur much more frequently.

Often slow slip is too slow to create seismic waves. But sometimes the rock on either side of the fault may move quickly enough to generate seismic waves that are just large enough to be above background noise. In that case, the slow slip generates what scientists call tremor.

A confusing point is that sometimes tremor occurs before or after the movement of the slow slip. Sometimes slow slip occurs with no tremor at all. The reasons for these facts are not currently understood.

“There’s a lot we don’t know,” said seismologist John Vidale of the University of Washington to Science News.

The longest period of slow slip yet detected anywhere occurred last year. It started in August under Vancouver Island in southwest Canada. It began as tremors there, then moved south. It crossed the international border, moving to and then beyond the Seattle region. All together, the event lasted 42 days.

At first it might seem that slow slip relieves stress on faults and could help us avoid major quakes. But some geologists think that slow slip events transfer stress to areas that then are more likely to rupture when a mega-quake occurs in a region. There’s some evidence to suggest that slow slip may have helped trigger Japan’s March 2011 quake, the terrible event that created the resulting tsunami.

So even when it comes to slow motion earth movement, we’ve got to hang onto our hats.

BELLINGHAM, Wash. – “Ties to the Land,” a workshop from the WSU Extension Puget Sound Forest Stewardship program, explores the human side of estate planning for farms and forests Tuesday, May 21 from 5 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. at Rome Grange in Bellingham.

The evening will focus on identifying long-term goals for properties, understanding family members’ emotional connection to land, family dynamics, and communication in succession planning. Extension experts will help address questions including: Who will care for the land? Will it be a family legacy or a squabble? Will it be kept intact and protected, or will it be divided up and sold off in pieces? Is passing property equally to each heir the same as passing it equitably to each heir?

The workshop will feature the award-winning Ties to the Land curriculum taught by extension experts. Cost is $40 per couple, which includes workshop materials and dinner for two. Additional materials and dinners can also be purchased.

Register at http://snohomish.wsu.edu/forestry/ttl.htm or call Mary Ann Rozance at (425) 357-6023. Space is limited.

Extension programs are available to all. Persons with disabilities requiring special accommodations while participating in this program may contact WSU Extension at (425) 357-6023.

While many Washingtonians hoped the unusually warm April Fools’ Day weather was a harbinger of things to come, Mother Nature had other plans.

Despite temperatures in the 70s on April 1, the transition from March didn’t mean the end of frost worries in Washington. The strengthening sun was no match for cold air masses that descended in April, leaving growers to suffer through numerous sleepless nights. From April 8 to 24, Moxee, Wash. experienced sub-freezing temperatures for 15 days. However, as often the case, location determined the severity of the frost conditions during April. In contrast to 18 sub-freezing mornings in Moxee during April, Royal City East failed to even reach 32 degrees.

“Unfortunately, there have been reports of cold damage across several agricultural regions of Washington during April,” said AgWeatherNet Director Gerrit Hoogenboom. “Despite our consistent efforts to disseminate vital weather information to growers, these events serve as sobering reminders of the need to remain vigilant during critical periods.”

Overall, however, central Washington temperatures were slightly above normal during April.

“Despite several frosty mornings, April temperatures were not unusually cold,” said AgWeatherNet meteorologist Nic Loyd. “Temperatures climbed into the 70s on April 1 and 2, and again from the 24 to the 26. Overall, monthly temperatures at Prosser were about one-half degree above average.”

Following warmth in the beginning of the month, wet conditions from April 4 to 7 yielded nearly 3 inches of rain at Long Beach. Although the low temperature at Moxee was a mild 51 degrees on April 5, cooler air quickly followed. The rain-cooled high temperature at Omak was only 47 degrees on April 7, while lows on April 8 were in the upper 20s to around 30 degrees in colder spots. After the passage of a windy and mild storm on April 10, a potent storm system on April 12 and 13 spawned rainfall, mountain snow, and winds up to 66 mph at Wenatchee Heights. Cooler air in the storm’s wake promoted the unsettled and frosty weather that dominated the mid-month time period. Highs were only in the 40s and 50s in most areas, while minimum temperatures dropped to as low as 19 degrees at LaCrosse on April 17.

On April 24, Ritzville dropped to 25 degrees, as frost continued to keep an icy hold on the region. A strong ridge of high pressure sent temperatures soaring into the 70s and 80s from April 24 to 26 during the warmest weather of 2013. Vancouver reached 77 degrees on April 26, while the 86-degree high at Desert Aire was the warmest temperature recorded by AgWeatherNet since September 2012.

Alas, a strong storm on April 29 delivered additional rain and mountain snow to the state, as winds gusted over 50 mph. Cold morning temperatures in the 20s and 30s returned on April 30, as the high struggled to reach the 50s and 60s.